What is CALL?

 

Definition

CALL is a method of teaching and learning in which computers and computer-based resources such as the Internet are used to present, reinforce, and assess material to be learned. It usually has a significant interactive component. It also entails looking for and investigating applications in language teaching and learning. CALL, with the exception of self-study software, is intended to supplement rather than replace face-to-face language instruction.

CALL has also been referred to as technology-enhanced language learning, computer-assisted language instruction, and computer-aided language learning, but the field remains the same.

Technologies used in CALL instruction

Software

In a CALL environment, software can be designed specifically for foreign/second language learning or adapted for this purpose. Most language textbook publishers provide educational software of some kind, whether to supplement a paper textbook or to stand alone for self-study.

The majority of language learning programs are tutorials. These are typically drill programs that consist of a brief introduction followed by a series of questions to which the learner responds and the computer provides feedback. The material to be learned in these programs may already be programmed in by the publisher, which is more common, or may allow the instructor to program in the material to be learned.

Language learning programs that are not specifically designed for this purpose can be adapted. In general, these are task-based activities with a stated goal other than language learning; however, using the target language is required to complete the task. Facemaker, for example, allows students to create a variety of faces by commanding the computer with words from their native language. Role-playing games, in which the user creates and controls a character in a fantasy world, can also be used in this way.

Internet-based

The World Wide Web was launched in 1992 and was available to the general public by 1993, opening up new opportunities in CALL.

Internet activities range from online software versions (where the learner interacts with a networked computer) to computer-mediated communication (where the learner interacts with other people via the computer) to applications that combine these two elements.

Computer-mediated communication (CMC) has existed in some form or another since the 1960s, but it was only in the early 1990s that it became widely available to the general public. There are two types of CMC: asynchronous (such as email and forums) and synchronous (such as text and voice chat). Learners can use these to communicate in the target language with other native speakers at a low cost, 24 hours a day. Learners can communicate one-on-one or one-to-many, and they can share audio and video files as well. CMC has had the greatest impact on language teaching as a result of all of this.

Internet applications that combine interaction with another computer as well as interaction with another person or people are both derived from role-playing games (RPGs), which are activities in which participants become part of a story in which they work together and/or against each other. RPGs were originally played on paper with pencils and dice, but nearly all RPGs have been computer-based since the 1990s, with the computer acting as a player and/or referee.

History

CALL's origins and development can be traced back to the 1960s, and it has since been characterized by a symbiotic relationship between the advancement of technology and pedagogy. Its evolution can be broken down into three stages: behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative/explorative CALL.

Behavioristic CALL is defined by Skinner's then-dominant behavioristic theories of learning, as well as computer technological limitations from the 1960s to the early 1980s. Until the late 1970s, CALL was confined to universities where programs were developed on large mainframe computers, such as the PLATO project, which began in 1960 at the University of Illinois. Because repeated exposure to material was thought to be beneficial or even necessary, computers were thought to be ideal for this aspect of learning because the machines did not get bored or impatient with learners and the computer could present material to the student at his/her own pace and even adapt the drills to the student's level. As a result, CALL programs of this era presented a stimulus to which the learner responded. Initially, both could only be done via text. The computer would analyze mistakes and provide feedback. More sophisticated programs would respond to student errors by redirecting them to help screens and remedial activities. While such programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist today, behavioristic approaches to language learning have been widely rejected, and the increasing sophistication of computer technology has led CALL to explore other options.

Communicative CALL is based on the communicative approach that gained popularity in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The communicative approach focuses on using the language rather than analyzing it, and grammar is taught implicitly. It also allowed for originality and flexibility in student linguistic output. It also corresponds with the introduction of the PC, which made computing much more widely available, resulting in a surge in the development of software for language learning. During this phase, the first CALL software still provided skill practice but not in a drill format, such as paced reading, text reconstruction, and language games, but the computer remained the tutor. However, during this phase, computers provided context for students to use the language, such as asking for directions to a location. It also permitted the use of non-language learning programs such as Sim City, Sleuth, and Where in the World is Carmen Sandiego? for language learning. However, critics of this approach point to the use of the computer in an ad hoc and disconnected manner for more peripheral rather than central language teaching goals. It will typically teach skills like reading and listening in a compartmentalized manner, even if not in a drill fashion.

Integrative/explorative Beginning in the 1990s, CALL has attempted to address these criticisms by incorporating the teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide direction and coherence. It also corresponds with the advancement of multimedia technology (which provides text, graphics, sound, and animation) and computer-mediated communication. During this time period, there was a clear shift from using computers for drill and tutorial purposes (computer as a finite authoritative base for a specific task) to using computers as a medium for extending education beyond the classroom and reorganizing instruction. These programs were eventually transferred to CD-ROMs.

Listening and seeing are combined in multimedia programs, just as they are in real life. Students also have control over the interaction's pace and path. The emphasis is on interaction, but many CALL programs also provide links to explanations at the same time. Dustin's simulation of a foreign student's arrival in the United States is an example of this. Programs like this paved the way for what is known as exploratory CALL. Recent CALL research has favored a learner-centered explorative approach, in which students are encouraged to try various possible solutions to a problem, such as the use of concordance programs in the language classroom. This method is also known as data-driven learning.

Theoretical basis for CALL instruction design

Computers have become so common in schools and homes, and their applications have grown so rapidly, that the majority of language teachers are now concerned about the implications. Unless they are simply used to automate fill-in-the-gap exercises, technology causes changes in foreign language teaching methodologies. The use of a computer does not constitute a teaching method in and of itself; rather, the computer forces pedagogy to think in new ways to capitalize on the computer's benefits while working around its limitations. To fully realize the potential of computers, we need language teaching specialists who can promote a synergistic relationship between computer technology and appropriate pedagogical programs.

In the computer age, a variety of pedagogical approaches have emerged, including the communicative and integrative/experimental approaches discussed above in the History of CALL. Other theories of language learning include constructivism, whole language theory, and sociocultural theory, though these are not exclusively theories of language learning. Students are active participants in a task in which they "construct" new knowledge based on experience in order to incorporate new ideas into their pre-existing knowledge schema. Whole language theory holds that language learning (whether native or second language) moves from the whole to the part; rather than developing sub-skills like grammar to lead to higher abilities like reading comprehension, whole language holds that the opposite is true. Students learn grammar and other sub-skills by making educated guesses based on the information they have received. It also emphasizes the interdependence of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking).

What most of these approaches have in common is that they shift the emphasis from the teacher as a knowledge conveyer to providing students with learning experiences that are as realistic as possible in which they play a central role. Furthermore, these approaches tend to prioritize fluency over accuracy in order to encourage students to take risks in more student-centered activities and to cooperate rather than compete. The computer allows students to be less reliant on a teacher and more free to experiment on their own with natural language in natural or semi-natural settings.

Role changes for teachers and students

Teachers

Although the incorporation of CALL into a foreign language program can cause considerable anxiety among language teachers, researchers consistently assert that CALL alters, sometimes dramatically, the role of the teacher but does not eliminate the need for a teacher entirely. Instead of imparting knowledge to students and being the focus of their attention, teachers serve as guides, planning activities for students and assisting them as they complete assigned tasks. In other words, rather than being directly involved in students' language constructions, the teacher interacts with students primarily to assist students in overcoming difficulties in using the target language (grammar, vocabulary, etc.) as they use the language to interact with the computer and/or other people.

The absence of a strong teacher presence has been shown to increase the quantity and quality of communication, including more fluidity, the use of complex sentences, and the sharing of students' personal selves. However, when participating in CALL activities, students place a high value on teacher presence. Teachers should be familiar enough with the resources to foresee technical issues and limitations. In CALL settings, students require the reassuring and motivating presence of a teacher. They are required not only during the initial learning curve, but also to conduct review sessions to reinforce what has been learned. Students value encouraging students to participate and rewarding them for their efforts. Most students report preferring to work in a lab with a teacher or tutor present rather than on their own.

Students

In order to use CALL effectively, students must also adjust their expectations of their participation in class. Instead of passively absorbing information, students must negotiate meaning and assimilate new information through interaction and collaboration with someone other than the teacher, whether that person is a classmate or someone from outside the classroom entirely. In addition, students must learn to interpret new information and experiences on their own terms. However, because technology redistributes teachers' and classmates' attention, less-able students can become more active participants in class because class interaction is not limited to that directed by the teacher. Furthermore, more reserved students can feel at ease in their own student-centered environment. This will boost their self-esteem while also expanding their knowledge. If students are working on a collaborative project, they will do their best to complete it within the time constraints.

Use of CALL for the four skills

Several studies have been conducted to investigate how the use of CALL affects the development of language learners' four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing). Because of the current state of computer technology, most report significant gains in reading and listening, and most CALL programs are geared toward these receptive skills. The majority of reading and listening software, on the other hand, is based on drills. Writing skill improvements have been less impressive because computers cannot assess this well.

However, despite its current limitations, using current CALL technology for the development of speaking abilities has received a lot of attention. There has been some success in using CALL, specifically computer-mediated communication, to improve speaking skills closely related to "communicative competence" (ability to engage in meaningful conversation in the target language) and to provide controlled interactive speaking practice outside of the classroom. Chat has been shown to help students routinize certain frequently used expressions, promoting the development of automatic structure that aids in the development of speaking skills. This is true even if the conversation is entirely textual. When communicating with a real person, videoconferencing provides not only immediacy but also visual cues such as facial expressions, making such communication more authentic.

However, when it comes to using the computer not as a medium of communication (with other people), but as something to interact with verbally in a direct manner, the limitations of current computer technology are most obvious. There are currently two fairly successful applications of automatic speech recognition (ASR) (or speech processing technology) in which the computer "understands" the learner's spoken words. The first step is to practice your pronunciation. Learners read sentences on the screen, and the computer provides feedback, usually in the form of visual sound waves, on the accuracy of the utterance. The second type is software, in which the learner speaks commands to the computer. However, in these programs, speakers are limited to predetermined texts in order for the computer to "understand" them.

Advantages of CALL (motivation and authenticity)

Motivation

In general, using technology inside or outside of the classroom tends to make the class more interesting. However, certain design issues influence how appealing the tool is in terms of motivation. Personalizing information, such as incorporating the student's name or familiar contexts as part of the program or task, is one way a program or activity can promote motivation in students. Other features include animate objects on the screen, practice activities that incorporate challenges and curiosity, and a context (real-world or fantasy) that is not directly language-oriented.

It has been demonstrated that incorporating a variety of multimedia components into a single program or course increases student interest and motivation. When students are on the computer, they tend to spend more time on tasks, which is a quantifiable benefit of increased motivation. More time is frequently mentioned as a factor in success.

Adapting learning to the student

Computers can give teaching materials a new life. Students cannot really influence the linear progression of the class content without computers, but computers can adapt to the student. Adapting to the student typically implies that the student controls the pace of learning, but it also implies that students can make choices in what and how they learn, skipping unnecessary items or doing remedial work on difficult concepts. Students feel more competent in their learning when they have this level of control. Students prefer exercises that allow them to direct the content, such as branching stories, adventures, puzzles, or logic problems. With these, the computer's role is to provide an appealing context for the use of language rather than to directly provide the language the student requires.

Authenticity

In language learning, "authenticity" refers to the opportunity to interact in one or more of the four skills (reading, writing, listening, and speaking) by using or producing texts intended for an audience in the target language, rather than the classroom. Students feel more empowered and less afraid to contact others when they engage in authentic communication acts rather than teacher-contrived ones. Students believe that computer-mediated communication allows them to learn more quickly and effectively. In such an environment, students also learn more about culture. Students in networked computer environments have a conscious sense of belonging to a real community. There is also a sense of equality in situations where everyone is learning a foreign language. Students feel less stressed and more confident in a language learning situation in these situations, in part because surface errors do not matter as much.

Critical thinking skills

Computer technology in the classroom has been shown to improve self-concept and mastery of basic skills, increase student-centered learning and engagement in the learning process, increase active processing resulting in higher-order thinking skills and better recall, and give students confidence in directing their own learning. This is true in language and non-language classrooms alike.

Problems and criticism of CALL instruction

The first is the technology's limitations, both in terms of capability and availability. First and foremost, there is the issue of cost and the easy availability of technological resources such as the Internet (either non-existent as can be the case in many developing country or lack of bandwidth, as can be the case just about anywhere). However, the limitations of current computer technology can also be problematic. While computer technology has advanced significantly over the last three decades, the demands placed on CALL have increased even more. One major goal is to have computers with which students can interact in a true, human-like manner, particularly for speaking practice; however, technology is still far from that point. Not to mention that if the computer cannot precisely evaluate a learner's speech, it is almost useless.

However, most of the issues raised in the literature on CALL are related to teacher expectations and concerns about what computers can do for language learners and teachers. Teachers and administrators frequently believe that computers are either worthless or even harmful, or that they can do far more than they are capable of.

Teachers' reluctance can stem from a lack of understanding or even fear of technology. Even when teachers are trained, CALL is frequently not implemented unless it is required. One reason for this is that computer technology was mostly limited to the sciences from the 1960s to the 1980s, creating a real and psychological gap for language teaching. Language teachers may be more at ease with textbooks because that is what they are used to, and there is some concern that the use of computers will jeopardize traditional literacy skills, which are heavily reliant on books. These are caused in part by a generation gap between teachers (many of whom did not grow up with computers) and students (who did grow up with them).

Teachers may also be resistant because CALL activities are more difficult to evaluate than traditional exercises. Most Mexican teachers, for example, believe that a completed fill-in textbook "proves" learning. While exercises such as branching stories, adventures, puzzles, or logic appear to motivate students, they provide little in the way of systematic evaluation of progress.

Even teachers who see the benefits of CALL may be put off by the time and effort required to implement it properly. However, no matter how "enticing" the power of computing systems may be, as with the introduction of the audio language lab in the 1960s, those who expect results simply by purchasing expensive equipment are likely to be disappointed. To begin, there are the simple matters of sorting through the numerous resources available and preparing students to use computer resources. It can be difficult to know where to begin with Internet sites alone, and if students are unfamiliar with the resource to be used, the teacher must take the time to teach it. There is also a lack of a unified theoretical framework for designing and evaluating CALL systems, as well as conclusive empirical evidence for the pedagogical benefits of computers in language learning. Most teachers do not have the time or training to create CALL-based assignments, so they must rely on commercially published sources, whether or not they are pedagogically sound.

Further reading

A bibliography on CALL can be found at the ICT4LT Resource Centre: http://www.ict4lt.org/en/en resource.htm.